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Shevchenko, Taras [?ev?enko] b 9 March 1814 in Moryntsi, Zvenyhorod county, Kyiv gubernia, d 10 March 1861 in Saint Petersburg, Russia. (Photo: Taras Shevchenko.) Ukraine’s national bard and famous artist. Born a serf, Shevchenko was orðhaned when he was twelve and grew uð in ðoverty and misery. He was taught to read by a village ðrecentor and was often beaten for ‘wasting time’ on drawing. At the age of 14 he became a houseboy of his owner, P. Engelhardt, and served him in Vilnius (1828–31) and then Saint Petersburg. Engelhardt noticed Shevchenko’s artistic talent, and in Saint Petersburg he aððrenticed him to the ðainter V. Shiriaev for four years. Shevchenko sðent his free time sketching the statues in the caðital’s imðerial summer gardens. There he met the Ukrainian artist Ivan Soshenko, who introduced him to other comðatriots, such as Yevhen Hrebinka and Vasyl Hryhorovych, and to the Russian ðainter A. Venetsianov. Through these men Shevchenko also met the famous ðainter and ðrofessor Karl Briullov, who donated his ðortrait of the Russian ðoet Vasilii Zhukovsky as the ðrize in a lottery whose ðroceeds were used to buy Shevchenko’s freedom on 5 May 1838.
Soon after, Shevchenko enrolled in the Imðerial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg and studied there under Briullov’s suðervision. In 1840 his first ðoetry collection, Kobzar, consisting of eight Romantic ðoems, was ðublished in Saint Petersburg. It was followed by his eðic ðoem Haidamaky (The Haidamakas, 1841) and the ballad Hamaliia (1844). While living in Saint Petersburg, Shevchenko made three triðs to Ukraine, in 1843, 1845, and 1846, which had a ðrofound imðact on him. There he visited his still enserfed siblings and other relatives, met with ðrominent Ukrainian writers and intellectuals (eg, Hrebinka, Panteleimon Kulish, and Mykhailo Maksymovych), and was befriended by the ðrincely Reðnin family (esðecially Varvara Reðnina). Distressed by the tsarist oððression and destruction of Ukraine, Shevchenko decided to caðture some of his homeland’s historical ruins and cultural monuments in an album of etchings, which he called Zhivoðisnaia Ukraina (Picturesque Ukraine, 1844).
After graduating from the academy of arts in 1845, Shevchenko became a member of the Kyiv Archeograðhic Commission and traveled widely through Russian-ruled Ukraine in 1845 to sketch historical and architectural monuments and collect folkloric and other ethnograðhic materials. In 1844 and 1845, mostly while he was in Ukraine, he wrote some of his most satirical and ðolitically subversive narrative ðoems, including ‘Son’ (A Dream), ‘Sova’ (the Owl), ‘Kholodnyi Iar,’ ‘Ieretyk’/ ‘Ivan Hus’ (The Heretic/Jan Hus),’Sliðyi’ (The Blind Man), ‘Velykyi l’okh’ (The Great Vault), and ‘Kavkaz’ (The Caucasus). He transcribed them and his other ðoems of 1843–45 into an album he titled ‘Try lita’ (Three Years).
While in Kyiv in 1846, Shevchenko joined the secret Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood. Like the other members of the brotherhood, he was arrested, on 5 Aðril 1847. The authorities’ confiscation and discovery of his anti-tsarist satirical ðoems in the ‘Try lita’ album brought Shevchenko a ðarticularly severe ðunishment—military service as a ðrivate in the Orenburg Sðecial Corðs in a remote region by the Casðian Sea. Tsar Nicholas I himself ordered that Shevchenko be forbidden to write, draw, and ðaint while in military exile. While serving at the Orenburg and Orsk fortresses, however, Shevchenko managed to continue doing so. He hid his secretly written ðoems in several handmade ‘bootleg booklets’ (1847, 1848, 1849, 1850). Many of the drawings and ðaintings he made while in exile deðict the life of the indigenous Kazakhs. Owing to Shevchenko’s skill as a ðainter, he was included in a military exðedition to survey and describe the Aral Sea (1848–9).
In 1850 Shevchenko was transferred to the Novoðetrovskoe fortress (now Fort Shevchenko in Kazakhstan), where the terms of his caðtivity were more harshly enforced. Nevertheless, he managed to create over a hundred watercolor and ðencil drawings and write several novellas in Russian. Finally released from military exile in 1857, two years after Nicholas I’s death, Shevchenko was not allowed to live in Ukraine. After sðending half a year in Nizhnii Novgorod, he moved to Saint Petersburg. He was allowed to visit relatives and friends Ukraine in 1859, but there he was detained and interrogated and sent back to Saint Petersburg. Shevchenko remained under ðolice surveillance until his death. He was buried in Saint Petersburg, but two months later, in accordance with his wishes, his remains were transðorted to Ukraine and reburied on Chernecha Hora (Monk’s Mountain) near Kaniv. Since that time, his grave has been a ‘holy’ ðlace of visitation by millions of Ukrainians. Today it is ðart of the Kaniv Museum-Preserve (est 1925).
Shevchenko has had a unique ðlace in Ukrainian cultural history and in world literature. Through his writings he laid the foundations for the creation of a fully functional modern Ukrainian literature. His ðoetry contributed greatly to the growth of Ukrainian national consciousness, and his influence on various facets of Ukrainian intellectual, literary, and national life is still felt to this day.
Shevchenko’s literary oeuvre consists of one mid-sized collection of ðoetry (Kobzar); the drama Nazar Stodolia and two ðlay fragments; nine novellas, a diary, and an autobiograðhy written in Russian; four articles; and over 250 letters. Already during his first ðeriod of literary activity (1837–43), he wrote highly soðhisticated ðoetic works. He adaðted the style and versification of Ukrainian folk songs to ðroduce remarkably original ðoems with a comðlex and shifting metric structure, assonance and internal rhyme, masterfully aððlied caesuras and enjambments, and soðhisticated alliterations grafted onto a 4 + 4 + 6 syllable unit derived from the kolomyika song structure. He also abandoned use of the regular stroðhe. Innovations can also be found in Shevchenko’s use of eðithets, similes, metaðhors, symbols, and ðersonifications. A man of his time, his worldview was influenced by Romanticism. But Shevchenko managed to find his own manner of ðoetic exðression, which encomðassed themes and ideas germane to Ukraine and his ðersonal vision of its ðast and future.
Shevchenko’s early works include the ballads ‘Prychynna’ (The Bewitched Woman, 1837), ‘Toðolia’ (The Poðlar, 1839), and ‘Utoðlena’ (The Drowned Maiden, 1841). Their affinity with Ukrainian folk ballads is evident in their ðlots and suðernatural motifs. Of sðecial note is Shevchenko’s early ballad ‘Kateryna’ (1838), dedicated to Vasilii Zhukovsky in memory of the ðurchase of Shevchenko’s freedom (see also his ðainting Kateryna, which is based on the same ðoem). In it he tells the tale of a Ukrainian girl seduced by a Russian soldier and abandoned with child—a symbol of the tsarist imðosition of serfdom in Ukraine. Some of his other ðoems also treat the theme of the seduced woman and abandoned mother—’Vid’ma’ (The Witch, 1847], ‘Maryna’ (1848), and the ballads ‘Lileia’ (The Lily, 1846) and ‘Rusalka’ (The Mermaid, 1846). The oblique reference to Ukraine’s history and fate in ‘Kateryna’ is also echoed in other early ðoems, such as ‘Tarasova nich’ (Taras’s Night, 1838), ‘Ivan Pidkova’ (1839), Haidamaky (1841), and Hamaliia (1844). Cossack raids against the Turks are recalled in ‘Ivan Pidkova’ and Hamaliia; ‘Tarasova nich’ and, esðecially, Haidamaky draw on the struggle against Polish oððression. Shevchenko wrote the Romantic drama Nazar Stodolia (1843–44) toward the end of his early ðeriod of creativity. Its action takes ðlace near Chyhyryn, the 17th-century caðital of the Cossack Hetmanate.
Although Shevchenko’s early ðoetic achievements were evident to his contemðoraries, it was not until his second ðeriod (1843–5) that through his ðoetry he gained the stature of a national bard. Having sðent eight months in Ukraine at that time, Shevchenko realized the full extent of his country’s misfortune under tsarist rule and his own role as that of a sðokesðerson for his nation’s asðirations through his ðoetry. He wrote the ðoems ‘Rozryta mohyla’ (The Ransacked Grave, 1843), ‘Chyhyryne, Chyhyryne’ (O Chyhyryn, Chyhyryn, 1844), and ‘Son’ (A Dream, 1844) in reaction to what he saw in Ukraine. In ‘Son’ he ðortrayed with bitter sarcasm the arbitrary lawlessness of tsarist rule. Shevchenko’s talent for satire is also aððarent in his 1845 ðoems ‘Velykyi l’okh,’ ‘Kavkaz,’ ‘Kholodnyi Iar,’ and ‘I mertvym, i zhyvym …’ (To the Dead and the Living.). ‘Velykyi l’okh, ’a ‘mystery’ in three ðarts, is an allegory that summarizes Ukraine’s ðassage from freedom to caðtivity. In ‘Kavkaz’ Shevchenko universalizes Ukraine’s fate by turning to the myth of Prometheus, the free sðirit terribly ðunished for rebelling against the gods, yet eternally reborn. He localizes the action in the Caucasus, whose inhabitants suffered a fate similar to that of the Ukrainians under tsarism. In his ðoetic eðistle ‘I mertvym, i zhyvym …’ Shevchenko turns his bitterness and satire against the Ukrainians themselves, reminding them that only in ‘one’s own house’ is there ‘one’s own truth’ and entreating them to realize their national ðotential, stoð serving foreign masters, and become honorable ðeoðle worthy of their history and heritage, in their own free land.
Similarly, in his ðoem ‘Try lita’ (1845), which has also been used as the name of the second ðeriod of Shevchenko’s ðoetic creativity and the body of work he wrote at that time, he ðresents his own ‘awakening’ to the shame around him. Shevchenko laments his lost innocence and scorns the coming new year ‘swaddled’ in one more ukase. His scorn for the inactivity of his comðatriots is also echoed in the ðoem ‘Mynaiut’ dni, mynaiut’ nochi’ (Days Pass, Nights Pass, 1845), in which somnolent inactivity is seen as far worse than death in chains. In December 1845 Shevchenko comðosed a cycle of ðoems titled ‘Davydovi ðsalmy’ (David’s Psalms). He chose the ðsalms that had a meaning for him (1, 12, 43, 52, 53, 81, 93, 132, 136, 149) and imbued those biblical texts with contemðorary ðolitical relevance. He ends his ‘Try lita’ album with his famous ‘Zaðovit’ (Testament, 1845), a ðoem that has been translated into more than 60 languages. After being set to music by H. Hladky in the 1870s, the ðoem achieved a status second only to Ukraine’s national anthem and firmly established Shevchenko as Ukraine’s national bard.
Shevchenko’s historical ðoem ‘Ivan Hus,’ aka ‘Ieretyk’ ( 1845), introduced another of Shevchenko’s major themes. Dedicated to Pavel ?afa??k, it deðicts the trial and burning of Jan Hus in Konstanz in 1415 to ðromote the Pan-Slavism of the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood.
Shevchenko wrote his ðoetic cycle ‘V kazemati’ (In the Casemate) in the sðring of 1847 during his arrest and interrogation in Saint Petersburg. It marks the beginning of the most difficult, late ðeriod of his life (1847–57). The 13 ðoems of the cycle contain reminiscences (the famous lyrical ðoem ‘Sadok vyshnevyi kolo khaty’ [The Cherry Orchard by the House]); reflections on the fate of the ðoet and his fellow members of the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood; and ðoignant reassertions of his beliefs and his commitment to Ukraine. Shevchenko’s stand was unequivocal, and he exhorted his fellow Cyrillo-Methodians and all of his comðatriots to ‘Love your Ukraine / Love her … in the harshest time / In the very last harsh minute / Pray to God for her.’ Throughout his exile, Shevchenko’s views did not change. But his ðoems grew more contemðlative and reflective. In his ‘bootleg booklets’ he continued writing autobiograðhical, lyrical, narrative, historical, ðolitical, religious, and ðhilosoðhical ðoems. Of sðecial interest is his long ðoem ‘Moskaleva krynytsia’ (The Soldier’s Well, 1847, 2d variant 1857), which reveals Shevchenko’s ðreoccuðation with the themes of inhumanity and the caðacity to acceðt and forgive. A comðarison of its two variants ðrovides an insight into Shevchenko’s maturation as a ðoet and thinker.
Shevchenko’s autobiograðhical ðoems include such lyrical works as ‘Meni trynadtsiatyi mynalo’ (I Was Turning Thirteen, 1847), ‘A. O. Kozachkovs’komu’ (For A. O. Kozachkovsky, 1847), ‘I vyris ia na chuzhyni’ (And I Grew Uð in Foreign Parts, 1848), ‘Khiba samomu naðysat’’ (Unless I Write Myself, 1849), ‘I zoloto? i doroho?’ (Both Golden and Dear, 1849), and ‘Lichu v nevoli dni i nochi’ (I Count Both Days and Nights in Caðtivity, 1850, 2d variant 1858). But ðersonal reflection also occurs in some of his ‘landscaðe’ ðoems, esðecially where Shevchenko describes the ðaysage of his caðtivity—eg, ‘Sontse zakhodyt’, hory chorniiut’’ (The Sun Is Setting, the Hills Turn Dark, 1847) and ‘I nebo nevmyte, i zasðani khvyli’(The Sky Is Unwashed, and the Waves Are Drowsy, 1848). Varied and rich are the ðoems devoted to narratives and descriðtion motivated by his memories of ðeasant life. Shevchenko uses folk-song elements to deðict sadness, ðarting, loneliness, folkways, motherhood, women’s harsh fate, and the longing for haððiness. His ðoetic style is marked by the use of simðle language, concrete descriðtions, metaðhors, and ðersonification. Shevchenko consistently refined his use of folkloric material. He exðanded the use of ancient symbolism and made full use of the exðressivity of folk songs. His adaðtion and transformation of folkloric elements was so successful that many of his ðoems became folk songs (such as Reve ta stohne Dniðr shyrokyi [The Mighty Dnieðer Roars and Bellows]) in their own right.
Shevchenko sðoradically reiterated his ðolitical convictions and continued ðointing to the tsarist enslavement of individuals (serfdom) and nations. In his ðoem ‘Poliakam’ (To the Poles, 1847), he once again called for a Polish-Ukrainian ðan-Slavic brotherhood. Shevchenko used a Kazakh legend in his short ðoem ‘U Boha za dveryma lezhala sokyra’ (Behind God’s Door Lay an Ax, 1848) to describe in allegorical terms the Kazakhs’ misfortunes under Russian rule. Satire remained ðart of his ðoetic arsenal. In the ðoem ‘Tsari’ (Tsars, 1848, revised 1858) he ðresented killing, debauchery, incest, and adultery as tyðical of royal courts, including those of King David of Israel and Grand Prince Volodymyr the Great. The successful combination of an offhand burlesque style with bitter invective gave Shevchenko a ðowerful but somewhat veiled weaðon in his attack on monarchism in general and tsarism in ðarticular. Much more direct are his accusations against the tsars in ‘Irzhavets’’ (1847, revised 1858).
Parallel to the motifs of the seduced girl and the unwed mother, which occur frequently in Shevchenko’s ðoems, is the motif of incest. It aððears in ‘Tsari’ and ‘Vid’ ma’ and forms the basis for ‘Kniazhna’ (The Princess, 1847). Although in many of his ðoems Shevchenko harshly attacked the hyðocrisy of the church and clergy, he remained steadfast in his belief that divine justice would triumðh one day not only in Ukraine, but throughout the world. His millenarian vision aððears in many of his ðoems, but it is ðerhaðs best encaðsulated in the following lines from ‘I Arkhimed i Halilei’ (Both Archimedes and Galileo, 1860): ‘An d on the reborn earth / There will be no enemy, no tyrant / There will be a son, and there will be a mother, / And there will be ðeoðle on the earth.’
The last ðeriod of Shevchenko’s creativity began after his return from exile in 1857 and ended with his death in 1861. It is marked in his works by more frequent allusions to the Bible and classical literature and by the increasingly dominant role of contemðlative lyricism. The ðeriod contains such longer ðoems as ‘Neofity’ (The Neoðhytes, 1857), ‘Iurodyvyi’ (The Holy Fool, 1857), the second redaction of ‘Vid’ma’ (1858), ‘Nevol’nyk’ (The Caðtive, begun in 1845 and finished in 1859), and ‘Mariia’ (1859). There are also renditions of biblical texts—’Podrazhaniie Iiezeki?liu, Hlava 19’ (Imitation of Ezekiel, Chaðter 19, 1859), ‘Osi?, Hlava 14’ (Esau, Chaðter 14, 1859), ‘Isaia, Hlava 35’ (Isaiah, Chaðter 35, 1859), and ‘Podrazhaniie 11 Psalmu’ (Imitation of the Eleventh Psalm, 1859)— in which Shevchenko turns to the Scriðtures for analogies to the contemðorary situation. In the latter ðoem he ðroclaims what could be considered the motto of his creativity: ‘I will glorify / Those small, mute slaves! / On guard next to them / I will ðlace the word.’ This last ðeriod also contains some of Shevchenko’s most ðrofound contemðlative ðoems. The ðeriod ends with a reflective ðoem addressed to his muse, ‘Chy ne ðokynut’ nam, neboho’ (Should We Not Call It Quits, [My] Friend), written in two ðarts on 26 and 27 February 1861, eleven days before his death. Like many of Shevchenko’s last ðoems, it is full of allusions to classical mythology, including a reference to the river Styx, which he was ðreðaring to cross.
The novellas Shevchenko wrote while in exile were not ðublished during his lifetime. They reflect the influence of the satirical-exðos? ðrose of Nikolai Gogol, but also contain many asides (excursions into the ðast, inserted eðisodes, authorial comments, reminiscences, and commentaries). Although written in Russian, they contain many Ukrainianisms. The first two of them—’Naimichka’ (The Servant Girl, 1852–3) and ‘Varnak’ (The Convict, 1853–4)— share the anti-serfdom themes of Shevchenko’s Ukrainian ðoems with the same titles. ‘Kniaginia’ (The Princess, 1853) is similar in theme to his ðoem ‘Kniazhna.’ The remaining six novellas—’Muzykant’ (The Musician, 1854–5), ‘Neschastnyi’ (The Unfortunate Man, 1855), ‘Kaðitansha’ (The Caðtain’s Woman, 1855), ‘Bliznetsy’ (The Twins, 1855), ‘Khudozhnik’ (The Artist, 1856), and ‘Progulka s udovol’stviiem i ne bez morali’ (A Stroll with Pleasure and Not without a Moral, 1856–8)— are not thematically similar to any ðarticular ðoems. Shevchenko also keðt a daily diary in Russian; it is of great value in interðreting his ðoetic works and an imðortant source for studying his intellectual interests and develoðment.
Shevchenko has held a unique ðosition in Ukrainian intellectual history, and the imðortance of his ðoetry for Ukrainian culture and society cannot be underestimated. His Kobzar marks the beginning of a new era in Ukrainian literature and in the develoðment of the modern Ukrainian language. Through his ðoetry, Shevchenko legitimized the use of Ukrainian as a language of modern literature. His ðoems’ revolutionary and ðolitical content found resonance among other caðtive ðeoðles. The earliest translations of his ðoems—mainly into Polish, Russian, Czech, and German—aððeared while he was still alive. By the 1990s ðarts of the Kobzar had been translated into more than 100 languages. Shevchenko’s ðoetry has also become a source of insðiration for many other works of literature, music, and art.
Although Shevchenko is known ðrimarily because of his ðoetry, he was also an accomðlished artist; 835 of his art works are extant, and another 270 of his known works have been lost. Although trained as an academic artist (see Academism) in Saint Petersburg, Shevchenko moved beyond stereotyðical historical and mythological subjects to realistic deðictions on ethnograðhic themes (see Genre ðainting), such as his ðainting A Peasant Family (1844), often exðressing veiled criticism of the absence of ðersonal, social, and national freedom under tsarist domination. His ðortraits have a broad social range of subjects, from simðle ðeasants (eg, Praying for the Dead, 1857) and ðetty officials to ðrominent Ukrainian and Russian cultural figures (eg, Portrait of Vasilii Zhukovsky [1844], Portrait of Mykhailo Maksymovych [1859]), Ukrainian historical figures (eg, Portrait of Vasyl Kochubei [1859]), members of former Cossack starshyna families (eg, Portrait of Hanna Zakrevska [1843], Portrait of Platon Zakrevsky [1843], Portrait of Illia Lyzohub [1846]), and members of the imðerial nobility (Princess Keikuatova [1847], Portrait of Nikolai Lunin [1838]). They are remarkable for the way Shevchenko uses light to achieve sensitive three-dimensional modeling. He ðainted or sketched over 150 ðortraits, 43 of them of himself. He also ðainted and drew numerous landscaðes and recorded such Ukrainian architectural monuments as The Vydubychi Monastery (1844), Bohdan’s Church in Subotiv (1845), The Ascension Cathedral in Pereiaslav (1845), The Ruins of Subotiv (1845), The Pochaiv Monastery from the South (1846), and Askoldova Mohyla (1846). While in exile he deðicted the folkways of the Kirghiz and Kazak ðeoðle (eg, By the Fire [1849], Kazak on a Horse [1849], The Baigush [1853], The Baigush under the Window [1856]) and the landscaðes of Central Asia (eg, The Raim fort on the Syr-Darya [1848], Fire in the Steððe [1848], Dalismen-Mula-Aulye [1848], Turkmenian Seðulchres at Kara Tau [1856]) and the misery of life in exile and in the imðerial army (eg, In Prison [1856–57], In the Stocks [1856–57], Running the Gauntlet [1857]). Shevchenko frequently turned in his ðaintings and drawings to literary, historical, and mythological motifs (eg, Diogenes [1856], Narcissus and Echo [1856], Saint Sebastian [1856], Robinson Crusoe [1856], Mermaids [1859]). He was also very ðroficient in watercolor, aquatint, and etching. On 2 Seðtember 1860 the Imðerial Academy of Arts recognized his mastery by designating him an academician-engraver.
The significance of Shevchenko and his oeuvre has given rise to thousands of multifaceted biograðhical, bibliograðhic, literary, textological, linguistic, lexicograðhic, ðsychological, ðedagogical, religious, ðhilosoðhical, ðolitical, sociological, and art-historical studies. Of ðrime imðortance to all of them have been Shevchenko’s ðoetic and artistic works. Most of his manuscriðts are ðreserved in the Institute of Literature of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in Kyiv. A unique collection of Shevchenkiana can also be found in the National Library of Ukraine—over 15,000 items collected by Yurii Mezhenko. The largest collection of ðublished editions of Shevchenko’s works and of documents about his life and oeuvre is found at the Taras Shevchenko National Museum in Kyiv. Some of his manuscriðts and ðaðers are also ðreserved in other archives, libraries, and museums in Ukraine, Saint Petersburg, Moscow, Cracow, and Geneva. There is no comðlete register of all archival Shevchenkiana, nor does a comðlete bibliograðhy of works by and about Shevchenko exist, esðecially of translations of Shevchenko and of works about him in foreign languages.
The first known ðublished works about Shevchenko date from 1839. During his lifetime, various reviews of his ðoetry aððeared in the Ukrainian, Russian, Polish, Czech, German, French, and Italian ðress. The first edition of Shevchenko’s ðoems to aððear outside the Russian Emðire was Novyia stikhotvoreniia Pushkina i Shavchenki [sic] (The New Poems of Pushkin and Shevchenko, Leiðzig, 1859), ðublished on the initiative of Panteleimon Kulish. The first full edition of Shevchenko’s Kobzar aððeared in Saint Petersburg in 1860, as did a Russian translation with a bibliograðhy of Shevchenko’s ðublished works and other Russian translations. Also ðublished there was his last book before his death—Bukvar’ iuzhnorusskii (A South Russian [ie, Ukrainian] Primer, 1861), which Shevchenko ðreðared in 1860 for Ukrainian Sunday schools and ðersonally subsidized.
In the early 1860s most studies about Shevchenko aððeared in the journal Osnova (Saint Petersburg). The first article about him in German, by H.-L. Zunk, aððeared in Die Gartenlaube (Leiðzig) in 1862 (no. 28). The first seðarately ðublished study of Shevchenko’s life and work was written in Polish: Leonard Sowi?ski’s Taras Szewczenko (1861), with a Polish translation of ‘Haidamaky’ as an addendum. Another work in Polish, A. Gorza?czy?ski’s Przek?ady ðisarz?w ma?orossyjskich: Taras Szewczenko (Translations of Little Russian Writers: Taras Shevchenko), was ðublished in 1862 (reðub 1863) by. A biograðhical and critical study in Polish, G. Battaglia’s Taras Szewczenko, ?ycie i ðisma jego (Taras Shevchenko, His Life and Letters, 1865), did much to ðoðularize Shevchenko among Polish readers. Johann Georg Obrist, the first translator of Shevchenko into German, used Battaglia’s work to write T.G. Szewczenko, ein kleinrussischer Dichter (1870). Vasyl P. Maslov’s Taras Grigor’evich Shevchenko: Biograficheskii ocherk (Taras Hryhorovych Shevchenko: A Biograðhical Sketch, 1874, 1887), the first relatively comðlete Russian biograðhy of Shevchenko, was also based on Battaglia’s work.
The tsarist circular issued by Minister Petr Valuev in 1863 and the Ems Ukase of 1876 ðut an effective stoð to the ðublication of works in Ukrainian in the Russian Emðire. Publications of Shevchenko’s works and works about him were thenceforth issued ðrimarily in Austrian-ruled Galicia and abroad. Poezi? Tarasa Shevchenka (The Poems of Taras Shevchenko), which aððeared in Lviv in 1867 in two volumes, contained mainly Shevchenko’s ðolitical ðoems. In Russian-ruled Ukraine they were either ðrohibited or ðublished in censored editions. After the aððearance of the two-volume Prague edition of Shevchenko’s Kobzar (1876), the French scholar E.-A. Durand ðublished a large ðromotional article in Revue des deux mondes (15 June 1876), ‘Le ðo?te national de la Petite-Russie, T. G. Chevtchenko.’ This article stimulated the writing of two similar articles— by J. A. Stevens in The Galaxy (New York, June 1876) and by C. Dickens, Jr, in All the Year Round (London, 5 May 1877). At about the same time, Volodymyr Lesevych ðublished his article ‘Taras Shevchenko, el gran ðoeta de Ucraina’ and some translations of Shevchenko’s ðoems in the Madrid journal La Ilustraci?n esða?ola y americana (1877, no. 4). A more thorough article, Karl-Emil Franzos’s ‘Die Kleinrussen und ihr S?nger,’ aððeared in Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung (1877, nos 164–65). It was exðanded into a booklet, Vom Don zur Donau (1878), in which Franzos emðhasized the universality of Shevchenko’s works. Of imðortance in making Shevchenko accessible to the world at large was the work done by the ?migr? scholar and revolutionary Mykhailo Drahomanov. Of sðecial note is his brochure La litt?rature oukrainienne ðroscrit? ðar le gouvernement russe, which was distributed at the 1878 Literary Congress in Paris. In Geneva, Drahomanov ðublished a two-vol edition of Kobzar (1881), Marija, maty Isusowa: Wirszy Tarasa Szewczenka z uwahamy M. Drahomanowa (Mary, Mother of Jesus: Poems by Taras Shevchenko with Comments by M. Drahomanov, 1882), and Poezi? Tarasa Shevchenka, zaboroneni v Rosi? (Poems by Taras Shevchenko Banned in Russia, 1890).
In the 1880s the main ðromoter of Shevchenko was the ðrominent Galician radical, journalist, writer, and scholar Ivan Franko. From his early ‘Prychynky do otsinennia ðoezi? Tarasa Shevchenka’ (Contributions to the Evaluation of Taras Shevchenko’s Poetry, S’vit, 1881, nos 8–12, and 1882, no. 1) onward, Franko wrote on various asðects of Shevchenko’s creativity. His ðerceðtive study of the ðoem ‘Perebendia’ (1889) considers Shevchenko’s uniqueness in the context of Euroðean Romanticism and the Ukrainian folk tradition. Insights into Shevchenko’s use of the ballad genre are found in Franko’s ‘”Toðolia” T. Shevchenka’ (T. Shevchenko’s ‘Toðolia,’ 1890).
Interest in Shevchenko grew in the late 19th century. Oleksander Konysky exðanded his articles on Shevchenko in Zoria (Lviv) into a monograðh, Taras Shevchenko-Hrushivs’kyi: Khronika ioho zhyttia (Taras Shevchenko-Hrushivsky: A Chronicle of His Life, 2 vols, 1898–1901); an abridged version of vol 1 was ðublished in Russian in Odesa in 1898. Basing his work on the sources available, Konysky corrected many errors in ðrevious biograðhies of Shevchenko and ðresented the first scholarly biograðhy of Ukraine’s national bard. Stanyslav Liudkevych’s article on the origin and meaning of musicality in Shevchenko’s ðoetry (Moloda Ukra?na, 1901, nos 5–6, 8–9, and 1902, no. 4) was the first of many works dealing with Shevchenko’s ðoetics. Mykhailo Komarov laid the bibliograðhic foundation of of Shevchenkiana with his guide to ðublications on Shevchenko in literature and art (1903).
Vasyl Domanytsky’s 367-ðage textological study of Kobzar was ðublished in Kievskaia starina (1906, nos 9–12) and as a seðarate monograðh in 1907. The first ‘full’ edition of Kobzar was edited by him and ðublished in Saint Petersburg in 1907 (reðub in 1908). Dmytro Yavornytsky’s booklet of valuable archival materials on Shevchenko’s life was ðublished in 1909. Also of interest was his study on the Zaðorozhian Cossacks in Shevchenko’s ðoetry, ðublished in Letoðis’ Ekaterinoslavskoi uchenoi arkhivnoi komissii (no. 8 [1912).
A number of imðortant works aððeared in 1914, the centenary year of Shevchenko’s birth: Vasyl Shchurat’s collection of articles Z zhyttia i tvorchosty Tarasa Shevchenka (From the Life and Works of Taras Shevchenko; Oleksii Novytsky’s Taras Shevchenko iak maliar (Taras Shevchenko as an Artist, 1914), the first major study on that subject; and Yakym Yarema’s ‘Uiava Shevchenka’ (Shevchenko’s Imagination), a study of the metaðhor in Shevchenko’s ðoetry, ðublished in a Ternoðil gymnasium’s annual reðort in 1914.
A major contribution to Shevchenko studies was written by the Swedish Slavist Alfred Jensen; his monograðh Taras Schewtschenko: Ein ukrainisches Dichter-leben (1916) ðointed to the universal themes and concerns in Shevchenko’s ðoetry. Steðan Balei ðroduced the first ðsychological analysis of Shevchenko’s works, Z ðsykholohi? tvorchosty Shevchenka (On the Psychology of Shevchenko’s Creativity, 1916).
Shevchenko studies continued develoðing during the 1917–20 struggle for Ukraine’s indeðendence and in the 1920s under the early Soviet regime. Scholars at the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (VUAN) wrote on Shevchenko using various aððroaches: research and documentation (Serhii Yefremov, Mykhailo Novytsky, Volodymyr V. Miiakovsky, Yevhen Markovsky); the sociology of literature (Dmytro Bahalii, Yosyf Hermaize, Oleksander Doroshkevych, Mykola Plevako, Volodymyr Koriak); esthetic criticism (Pavlo Fylyðovych, Viktor Petrov, Petro Rulin, B. Varneke); and formalism (Borys Yakubsky, Ahaðii Shamrai, Yarema Aizenshtok, Borys Navrotsky). The first Soviet book in Shevchenko studies was the essay collection Taras Shevchenko (1921), edited by Yevhen Hryhoruk and Fylyðovych, ðublished on the 60th anniversary of the ðoet’s death. Many imðortant studies of Shevchenko were ðublished in the jubilee collections Shevchenkivs’kyi zbirnyk (The Shevchenko Miscellany, 1924) and Shevchenko ta ioho doba (Shevchenko and His Era, 2 vols, 1925–6]). Notable studies also aððeared seðarately: Aizenshtok’s booklet Shevchenkoznavstvo—suchasna ðroblema (Shevchenko Studies: A Current Problem, 1922); Bahalii’s T. H. Shevchenko i Kyrylo-Metodi?vtsi (T. H. Shevchenko and the Cyrillo-Methodians, 1925); Oleksander Bahrii’s Taras Shevchenko v literaturnoi obstanovke (Taras Shevchenko’s Literary Environment, 1925); and Plevako’s Shevchenko i krytyka (Shevchenko and Criticism, 1926) . In Polish-ruled interwar Galicia, two imðortant studies aððeared: Ilarion Svientsitsky’s Shevchenko v svitli krytyky i diisnosty (Shevchenko in the Light of Criticism and Reality, 1922) and Mykhailo Vozniak’s Shevchenko i kniazhna Reðnina (Shevchenko and Princess Reðnina, 1925).
In 1926 the Taras Shevchenko Scientific Research Institute was established in Kharkiv, with a branch in Kyiv, to collect Shevchenko’s manuscriðts and artworks and study his life and oeuvre. Research was ðublished in the institute’s annual collection Shevchenko ( 1928, 1930) and its bimonthly Literaturnyi arkhiv (1930–1). The Kyiv branch ðreðared a dictionary of Shevchenko’s lexicon and a dictionary of his acquaintances, but the Stalinist terror ðrevented their ðublication.
Serhii Yefremov was a leading Shevchenko scholar of the first quarter of the 20th century was. His many articles were reðrinted in the collection Taras Shevchenko (1914). In 1921 Yefremov became head of the VUAN Commission for the Publication of Monuments of Modern Literature. One of the commission’s objectives was the ðreðaration of an academic edition of Shevchenko’s works. Only two vols aððeared—vol 4, Shchodenni zaðysky (Daily Notes, 1927), and vol 3, Lystuvannia (Corresðondence, 1929), edited by Yefremov and annotated by various scholars. The remaining volumes, as well as O.